Thursday, 28 April 2016

Africa and a clean energy future

#development,  #clean energy, #sustainable, #green economy, #innovation,  #mudombi, #shakespear, #Africa

Author: Shakespear Mudombi
Type: Thoughts and Perspective
Date: 28 April 2016
  

Abstract

Shakespear Mudombi (PhD)
Past development approaches have been putting greater emphasis on economic development with little emphasis on environmental and social concerns. However, there are indications that these development approaches are and have not been sustainable, as they have contributed to high carbon emissions that are blamed for causing global warming which in turn causes climate change. Because of failure of past approaches, there are efforts to align development towards a low carbon future. This article argues that, the African continent and its people should not remain behind in this drive towards a clean energy future. While challenges are there, greater priority should focus on the opportunities that are available especially the abundant renewable energy sources. The endeavour towards a clean energy future should be embedded in the broader green economy framework, which requires an overhaul in the way economic, industrial and social processes are done. The clean energy future should be consistent with, and should contribute towards the broader sustainable development goals.

Introduction

Source: Pixabay.com
It is no longer a question of whether African countries should increase their investment in, and use of low-carbon energy sources or whether it should pursue clean energy future. In fact, issues of low-carbon energy are critical to every individual, society, and nation, regardless of the level of development. When the climate change challenge was gaining prominence, first within the scientific community and then amongst policy makers, one of the critical issues that was being emphasised was that developed countries should participate in mitigation mostly whilst the developing world, Africa included should prioritise adaptation. Developed countries have been cited as the main contributors of past green house gases (GHG) emissions that is blamed for climate change. While this still holds true to some extent, it is slowly being realised that the threat of climate change is real and reducing its impacts no longer requires a divided front. In other words, the blame shifting game has to end and there is need for unity of purpose in tackling the climate change challenge. Hence, I said in the beginning - it is no longer a question of whether “African countries should increase their investment in, and use of low-carbon energy sources or whether it should pursue clean energy future”, because it should. The important question thus becomes: to what extent should Africa invest in low-carbon energy and how is should be done? This is so because going the low-carbon energy route is no longer and should not be a less prioritised option but should be embraced as one of the most likely sustainable path towards climate-resilient development.

Background

Climate change is one of the main challenges facing the world today. The African continent has been highlighted as one of the most vulnerable continents, this is worsened by the fact the the continent is already vulnerable to many other challenges, of which climate change acts as a ‘multiplier’ of the stressors. In general, the continent has weak adaptive capacity. In dealing with the climate change challenge, two prominent actions are emphasised, namely adaptation and mitigation. Adaptation on one hand relates to dealing with the already bad situation and reducing the impacts of the climate change effects that are or will happen, while mitigation seeks to prevent future effects by halting climate change. In other words, adaptation mainly focuses on effects while mitigation seeks to deals with the causes i.e. nipping in the bud. From the perspective of a clean energy future, of which adoption of low-carbon energy is  a prerequisite, this belongs to the mitigation dimension, whereby carbon emissions have to be greatly reduced if the catastrophic impacts of climate change are to be avoided. Having set an important background it is now important to highlight and discuss why Africa should invest in low-carbon energy. The opportunities and challenges for a low carbon development pathway for Africa will vary from country to country depending on: resource endowments; level of development; and the policy environment amongst other factors (Mudombi, 2013). 
Climate change response pathway (by Shakespear Mudombi, 2016)

Challenges hampering investment in, and use of low-carbon energy sources

Source: Pixabay.com

A number of challenges have been highlighted in the literature. One of the main reasons that have been argued against adopting a low carbon energy path is the fact the Africa is highly endowed with high carbon energy resources and these should be used to enhance the continent’s development. This is a critical challenge because the rate at which cleaner forms of energy are being developed and disseminated is relatively slow. This means that reducing the use of high-carbon energy sources whilst not enhancing the use of low-carbon energy sources will further worsen the already high energy poverty. Thus, there is need to find ways to increase the development and dissemination of the cheaper and easily accessible cleaner forms of energy if a clean energy future is going to be a reality for Africa.

Source: Pixabay.com
There is need for the transfer of cleaner technologies and learning from various parts of the world, in other words, techno-ledge (technology and knowledge) sharing is critical. However, desirable and noble as it may, there has not been much techno-ledge sharing due to a number of barriers relating to the high cost of developing these technologies and the subsequent profit concerns from investors. For most of the African countries or population, these technologies are beyond their reach, which makes economic sense for them to continue using relatively cheaper high-carbon energy. The fact that Africa is highly dependant on external technology (i.e. it imports most of its technology) is a challenge on its own. As the global trend in technology production is moving towards low carbon technologies, in which case if the continent does not embrace the new low carbon energy technology, it will be left out in the process. The current high carbon technologies are becoming obsolete; these outdated technologies will not have back up technical support such as spare parts. In this regard, various stakeholders should seek to enhance local innovation capacity in the development and utilisation of low carbon energy sources on the continent.

As stressed by Mudombi (2013) that people’s understanding, perceptions, and attitudes are critical for the attainment of a clean energy future. Most people especially the general public lack information and knowledge about climate change in general and the need to adopt low-carbon energy, thus creating awareness and promoting learning is critical for the continent. If people have a better understanding it will help them to be aware of the need for them to change behaviour. Though some research studies have shown that awareness does not necessarily lead to behaviour change (the relationships are complex, and many factors influence behaviour change), it is noteworthy to state that awareness is indeed an important ingredient in the behaviour change process for the transition from high-carbon to low-carbon energy sources.

Source: Pixabay.com
Moving towards a clean energy future requires a lot of financial resources. These resources are required for importing and using cleaner technologies and production processes. Africa is currently faced with other challenges which include food insecurity, high unemployment, pandemics, instability, and poverty, amongst many. One of the critical challenges is the fact that despite concerted efforts that have been directed towards developing the continent and tackling challenges such as climate change, little progress is and has been made.  This has generally created fatigue amongst various players, especially funders. For instance, development support and funding for initiatives such as clean energy development and adoption has not been availed as expected. To build a clean energy future requires resources, willingness and motivation from various players to contribute towards achieving the goal. There has been distrust between developed and developing countries in efforts to address climate change (Klein et al. 2010, Mudombi, 2013). This lack of trust is a significant challenge as it has implications on how low carbon development is perceived and embraced on the African continent. For developing countries in general and Africa in particular, there are a myriad of challenges, thus focusing on a clean energy future alone without taking cognisance of other development challenges such as food insecurity and poverty will not achieve the desired results for Africa.

Opportunities for investing in, and use of low-carbon energy sources

Having highlighted the challenges, it is important to briefly outline some of the opportunities for increasing dependency on low-carbon energy in Africa. The continent is richly endowed with low carbon energy resources. For example, solar energy can be adopted at a large scale to reduce energy poverty among both rural and urban dwellers. Hydro electricity power has a big potential by expanding and improving current plants and setting up new ones. Some of the hydro-electricity generations plants were set up long back, these could be retrofitted with more efficient and high productivity systems. Moreover, the continent has potential to benefit from various financial resources that are being availed at the global level to mitigate climate change and promote low-carbon development.

Adopting low-carbon energy particularly in the production of export goods will increase the competitiveness of products. Markets and consumers the world over are becoming more environmental and climate conscious, they want to buy environmental and climate friendly products. Trading requirements being set in the developed countries’ markets now require certain certifications and assess the entire value chain of the imported product on issues such as carbon footprint, human rights, health and phyto-sanitary standards. If the African producer does not abide by these requirements then it means their products will have less demand on the international market. Starting to implement and adopting clean energy sources can be one of the relatively low hanging fruits to improve competitiveness of African products.

Source: Pixabay.com
While some challenges have been highlighted in terms of the high cost of technology transfer, it is noteworthy to point out that there are some technologies that are being availed at relatively low and subsidised prices which can prop up the continent as it seeks to embrace a clean energy future. In addition, the youth bulge that characterises the African population has been highlighted as stagnating development on the continent, nevertheless this should be embraced as a good opportunity for promoting learning, awareness, and behaviour change amongst these youth so that as they grow up they become clean energy conscious adults. Attitudes and behaviour are relatively easier to change in younger people compared to adults.

Conclusion

Source: Pixabay.com
It is imperative for the African continent and its people not to be left out in this drive towards a clean energy future. The various challenges should not act as a hindrance towards adopting low-carbon energy; rather, priority should focus on the opportunities that are available especially the abundant renewable energy sources. In this drive there should be greater collaboration and techno-ledge sharing between Africa and other continents in order to attain an inclusive clean energy future. The endeavour towards a clean energy future should be embedded in the broader green economy framework, which requires an overhaul in the way economic, industrial and social processes are done. There should be changes in way things are done. That is doing things(processes and ways) differently using different means (knowledge, skills andtechnology) and resources (clean and renewable rather than dirty andnon-renewable) with the overall objective of achieving positive and sustainablesocio-economic-environmental outcomes (Mudombi, 2015). The clean energy future should be consistent with, and should contribute towards the broader sustainable development goals.

References

Boko, M., Niang, I., Nyong, A., Vogel, C., Githeko, A., Medany, M., et al. (2007). Africa. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergo. In M. L. Parry, O. F. Canziani, J. P. Palutikof, P. J. van der Linden, & C. E. Hanson (Eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Boyd, E., Grist, N., Juhola, S., & Nelson, V. (2009). Exploring Development Futures in a Changing Climate: Frontiers for Development Policy and Practice. Development Policy Review 27 (6): 659-674.

Ellis, K., Cantore, N., Keane, J., Peskett, L., Brown, D., & Willwn te Velde, D. (2010). Growth in a carbon constrained global economy. London: Overseas Development Institute.
Klein, R. J. (2010). Linking adaptation and development finance: A policy dilemma not addressed in Copenhagen. Climate and Development 2: 203-206.

Mudombi S. (2015). The nexus between the green economy and sustainable development. Sustainable Global Development e-Thinktank blog. http://sustainableglobaldevelopmentthinktank.blogspot.co.za/2015/03/the-nexus-between-green-economy-and.html.

Mudombi S. (2013). Exploring challenges and opportunities for low carbon climate resilient development in Africa (Chapter 9). In Mutanga S S, Simelane T, and Pophiwa N (eds) Africa in a changing global environment: perspectives of climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies in Africa. African Institute of South Africa, Pretoria.

Peskett, L., Brown, J., & Schreckenberg, K. (2010). Carbon offsets for forestry and bioenergy: researching opportunities for poor rural communities. Overseas Development Institute (ODI).

Seres, S., & Haites, E. (2008). Analysis of Technology Transfer in CDM Projects. UNFCCC. Toronto: Margaree Consultants Inc.

UNEP. (2011). Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication - A Synthesis for Policy Makers. United Nations Environment Programme (www.unep.org/greeneconomy).

UNFCCC. (2008). Kyoto protocol reference manual on accounting of emissions and assigned amount. Bonn: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

Urban, F., Mitchell, T., & Villanueva, P. S. (2010). Greening disaster risk management: Issues at the interface of disaster risk management and low carbon development. Strengthening Climate Resilience Discussion Paper (3). Brighton: Institute for Development Studies.

Thursday, 12 November 2015

A case of grassroots innovation: Kitte and his vehicle

#motivation,  #inspiration,  #innovation,  #mudombi, #shakespear

This story was first published on the Motivational Convergency blog 


Author: Shakespear Mudombi
Type:Story
Date: 13 November 2015

A brief highlight of Kitte's life

Kitte, the traveller, the innovator
This is a story about Kitte, the traveller who I met on a beautiful Sunday in Pretoria, South Africa on the 26th April 2015. Kitte is his name, a nickname used since childhood both at school and home. His name and contact phone number are written on his vehicle. This vehicle is the subject of this story, however, to set the context clear it is crucial to briefly highlight the life of Kitte. Kitte enjoys travelling and he identifies himself as such.

How did I meet Kitte?

A cousin of mine had visited me so when he was going back to his place of residence, I had to take him half way to where he gets his transport, that is Marabastad - a place of history, stories both interesting and some frightening. So on our way we met Kitte, he had parked his vehicle  on a road that was still under construction in downtown Pretoria (slightly out of the city centre). As the day was a Sunday it was not very busy, most of the people who were walking-by were mainly coming from church, or going about winding off their weekend. Moreover, the mood was relaxed because the next day, Monday was a holiday - the Freedom Day, which is an important day in South Africa's history. The day is celebrated to mark the liberation of the country and its people from a long period of colonialism and White minority domination.

After seeing Kitte parked at that place I wondered a bit why he had chosen that particular place. There were no many shops except a hair saloon and a small spazza 'grocery' shop that were open. However after a brief chat with Kitte, I got to know that the reason for his journey to Pretoria from Johannesburg was to go the High Court. He indicated that there were issues that needed to be sorted out at the highest court. That is why he was parked in this area - that's where the courts of law are situated. I had not carried my iPad with me for taking notes so I could not properly capture all of what Kitte was saying. The issue that he wanted at the High Court was to seek a redress on a property (a building, an inherited one I think) of which he has not been getting rental money. The High Court was gonna help him sort out the issue so that he could start getting the money. He was so hopefull that if the rental issue is sorted, he will get a lot of money from the rent that has been accruing for the last 15 years. I did not probe further to find out if the papers were already lodged with the High Court or if he was going to initiate the process that time.

Kitte though he is approaching old age (I forgot to ask him his age) he indicated that he does not have any children and wife because he can't afford to support them. Nonetheless, he was optimistic that when he gets the lump sum rent money from the high court settlement, he hoped that he will marry and have children. With the money he will buy a car and a caravan, and as a traveller will go see places, in particular visit game reserves to see wild animals - this he will do with his future wife. Of interest also was the brief discussion about his other favorite livelihood activity. He enjoys fishing and usually goes to Port Elizabeth to do fishing. As he does not own a boat, he hires one, after a catch, he shares the proceeds with the owner of the boat based on a proportion of 40% to Kitte and 60% to the owner of the hired boat.

In brief that is the life of Kitte. I enjoy talking and interacting with people such as Kitte because their life stories are rich, full of lessons, they are fascinating. Over the years I have learnt that inspiring life stories come from both widely acknowledged successful people, who are regarded highly by society. Nevertheless, powerful stories also come from people like Kitte as well. Such people are often despised by society as failures because they would not have reached the standards of success as defined by society, such standard mainly calibrated on a financial and asset ownership scale. In as much as I don't argue against such ways of evaluating people's success, I have to come to realize that success in life as measured by such measures alone are exclusionary, they exclude people that have achieved in their own right. Such is a story of Kitte, people often not understood by society, they do things differently - they are not part of the general. Interesting is Kitte's story when you listen to him, more interesting as well is his  "vehicle", the one I mentioned at the beginning of the story that it is the subject of this story. I will call the vehicle the "scooter mobilehouse".

Kitte's scooter mobilehouse

Kitte on his vehicle

The description of the vehicle


8 horsepower concrete mixer engine powering Kitte's vehicle
From my own assessment, Kitte is an innovator par excellence, his "scooter mobilehouse",  otherwise referred to herein as the vehicle - is a an elongated vehicle with a front that is taken from a scooter and three wheels at the back. The elongation is because there is a small bed - it is his house as well, hence why I called it the "scooter mobilehouse". It is a combination of different parts some recovered from the garbage sites. Kitte's vehicle travels at a speed of up to 25 km per hour powered by an 8 horsepower concrete mixer engine salvaged from the scrap yard. Some of the things that can be seen carried on the vehicle include a paraffin stove, fishing line, pots, water containers, and blankets.

The need to embrace innovation

I believe for Africa and other developing countries to prosper, grassroots innovation is more important. The reasons being that grassroots innovation uses mainly locally available resources and material which are usually cheap and easily accessible. Kitte used thrown away pieces and parts to build his "scooter mobilehouse". The fact that this vehicle can take Kitte from point A to point B, is a sure fact that it is fulfilling a need. Kitte travelled from Johannesburg to Pretoria to sort out his issue at the high court. This vehicle provides him with transport and accommodation (though not secure).  As he is able to meet his goal of travelling in an affordable transport means - is an achievement on its own. Regardless of how the vehicle looks, it's meeting and fulfilling some of Kitte's needs. The ingenuity is not the vehicle per se but in being able to design and make a vehicle from scrap (otherwise useless material).

Shakes trying to understand from Kitte how the vehicle works


The point I am trying to make and the significance of this story is that there are many people like Kitte, able and innnovative, who with the necessary support from various stakeholders are able to contribute in finding solutions to some of the challenges nagging development practitioners the world over. In a paper I co-authored with my professor (Prof Mammo Muchie, an innovation professor), that was published in the Innovation and Development Journal, we noted that,



Kudzai Makwanya (my cousin) marvelling at Kitte's vehicle
Kitte made his vehicle from discarded material, with few resources and limited support. Such innovators are often excluded from the formal innovation system - they are grassroots, underground, hidden innovators. I believe with the necessary support, many innovators like Kitte will contribute more meaningfully in society. An interesting aspect that I picked from the brief chat with Kitte, is that he is full of hope and optimism - nowadays, these attributes are generally scarce in many people. Being hopeful and optimistic provide the critical impetus, which I believe is the driving force that enable us to want to get to the next day, the belief that tomorrow has its on promises and truly our dreams are gonna be achieved.

Stories of high-tech, advanced innovation are interesting and of great impact, nonetheless these stories are usually  over written - every newspaper, small and big want to carry such stories. However, of value as well, are stories such as that of Kitte, without the glitz and glamour in the story itself or the innovation per se, there is something shining or that has potential to shine if polished - that ability to do things, the process to create, to modify and make something fit for purpose, to meet a particular need. There are lots of Kittes around the world, a valuable resource - the rough diamonds. If they are not discovered they remain buried in the ground and of less value. Nevertheless, if discovered they can be polished to bring out the giltz, the shining, the sparkle, the value embedded within. Now is the time not to  only rely on already polished gems, there is need to discover and identify the unpolished ones too. They can be polished through creating an enabling environment and providing them with the necessary support. That is the story of Kitte.

Safe journey and all the best Kitte, the traveller, the underground innovator !!!

References

Shakespear Mudombi & Mammo Muchie. 2014. An institutional perspective to challenges undermining innovation activities in Africa, Innovation and Development. DOI: 10.1080/2157930X.2014.921272

Tuesday, 7 July 2015

Youth, Consevation Agriculture and Sustainable Development

#youth,  #conservation#agriculture#sustainable, #development,  #zvavanyange

Author: Eric Zvavanyange
Type: Book


https://www.morebooks.de/bookprice_offer_df2b75085cca3042887b13429ccfb849597a0536?auth_token=d3d3LmxhcC1wdWJsaXNoaW5nLmNvbToxYmNlNDBkN2Q5NGUyMGYxYmIxNmIxMDMzOWZjNTMxZg%3D%3D&locale=gb&currency=EUR
The unexplored potential of youth as the next frontier and workforce is a recent phenomenon in agricultural transformation in Africa.This calls for innovative approaches to create connections from the available human and technical competencies. Conservation agriculture and sustainable development are emerging lucrative economic domains. But, what is youth engagement in Africa? How do we engage youth in these economic domains? What are the lessons to be learned when youths are engaged in conservation agriculture and sustainable development? This book, therefore, provides a unique way to create new ideas, images, knowledge, and facts for use by farmers, students, youths, researchers, practitioners and scientists.This book should help to stimulate critical dialogue and resolve among readers on truly engaging youth in agricultural transformation.In using Zimbabwe, as the anchorage, the book, holistically scans the nation's landscape - food and nutrition security, climate change and variability, and the post-2015 development agenda, for examples of innovative thinking, leadership, and action, in youth engagement, and thus, catapults local futuristic-thinking youths to the global stage.

Thursday, 26 March 2015

The nexus between the green economy and sustainable development


#development,  #sustainable, #green economy, #innovation,  #mudombi, #shakespear
 
Author: Shakespear Mudombi
Type: Thoughts and Perspective
Date: 26 March 2015

Introduction

Shakes at COP 17, Durban testing the Siemens zero emissions prototype bike
The green economy has recently gained prominence in various local, national and international development activities, discussions, and agendas. While the discourse on the topic is current and well received by researchers as well as practitioners, it is noteworthy that it is commonly that such hot topics are less understood by the general public. In other words, such topics have become elitist discussions among intellectuals, albeit excluding the ordinary people or the general public, whose role, perceptions and understanding have a strong influence on the success or failure of such initiatives. Based on literature review the aim of the article is to discuss and explore what the green economy refers to, explicate how it converges with the overall sustainable development agenda, and highlight the critical requirements for a green economy.

What is Green Economy

Stakeholder engagement with rural community in Hwange District, Zimbabwe
While the term ‘green economy’ appears to be new or has of late gained popularity, the literature shows that the term is not necessarily new. For instance, Wentworth and Oji (2013) posited that the concept has been around since the 1970s. In fact, the recent elevation of the concept has been driven mainly in response to the 2008–2009 global economic recession and the associated market failures (Wentworth and Oji, 2013; UNEP, 2011), since then, the green economy phenomenon has been growing exponentially (Nhamo and Nhamo, 2014). The idea of the green economy was seen as a recovery tool to the twin problems of the economic crisis and climate change (Perrot and Soumonni, 2015). A valuable lesson from the global economic recession was that the growth path based on a brown economy (dependent on highly polluting energy sources) was not sustainable. Hence, the green economy approach is envisaged as an alternative that will help to bring solutions to the economic challenges as well as steer development towards sustainable outcomes.

Before delving much into the discussion, it is imperative to define the term ‘green economy’. The prevalent definition of the term is by UNEP (2011),
A green economy is one that results in ‘improved human well-being and social equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities….can be thought of as one which is low carbon, resource efficient and socially inclusive.

Natural capital should be preserved
In other words, the green economy approach basically emphasises the integration of economic and environmental activities and policies to create opportunities for economic growth while preventing unsustainable pressure on the quality and quantity of the natural assets (EEA, 2011). The “growth” thereof does not necessarily imply economic output growth, but should indicate “sustainable economic progress” (FAO, 2010).

Much as the terminology and interpretations might differ, the common outcomes should include economic development while responding to challenges such as climate change, loss of natural capital, resource scarcity, together with seeking to achieve social and development objectives such as reducing poverty (Low, 2011). Myung-Bak (2010) asserts that the green economy ‘entails a new social and civilizational paradigm shift away from the business assumptions and lifestyles of the industrial age to a new path that satisfies the need foreconomic growth, social and corporate responsibility, and the integrity of the environment’. Having highlighted what the green economy entails it is imperative to explore some of the necessary conditions for the green economy to take-off.

Enabling conditions for the take-off of the Green Economy

There are some myths about the green economy, which negatively affect how the approach is perceived and embraced - in some sections - it is viewed with suspicion. The UNEP (2011) noted two common myths about the green economy. The first myth is that there is an inevitable trade-off between environmental sustainability and economic progress. The second myth is that a green economy is a luxury that can only be afforded by rich countries; moreover, it is a developed-world imposition to constrain development and perpetuate poverty in developing countries. These myths are evidence that while the green economy approach is being embraced and gaining prominence, there are widely held contestations and debates on the appropriateness of the approach and its application to different socio-economic environments.

The proponents of the green economy argue there is no trade-off between economic progress and environmental sustainability. In fact, these objectives can be achieved concurrently and in a complementary manner, resulting in a win-win situation. What is required is a shift in thinking that “green” is not against “growth” (Myung-Bak, 2010). A transition to a green economy requires a range of building blocks. These are categorised as: minimising losses and avoiding inappropriate trade-offs; investing in environmental infrastructure; active management of environmental risks; proactive investment in natural capital; further eco-efficiency for relative decoupling; and absolute decoupling of the economy from resource use and its negative impacts (ten Brink et al. 2012).

The A Re Yeng Bus Rapid Transport system, Pretoria, South Africa
The green economy is associated with a number of opportunities. For instance, the South African government seeks to explore the rolling out of solar-water heating systems; procurement of renewable energy; promotion of biofuels for vehicles; launching clean-coal initiatives; promoting energy efficiency across the economy; retrofitting of domestic, industrial and commercial buildings to promote energy efficiency; waste-recycling; improved mass transport system; electrification of poor communities and reduction of fossil-fuel open-fire cooking and heating; promotion of localisation, youth employment, cooperatives and skills development; and increasing investments in the green economy (The Economic Development Department, 2011).

A critical aspect for the success of the green economy is that its activities have to be attractive, viable, profitable, and supported by society - which requires certain conditions to be changed, shifted or created (FAO, 2010). These conditions are referred as “enabling conditions”. In this context, Myung-Bak (2010) outlined three key enabling conditions for the green economy to work. Firstly, there is need to have a strong political will and leadership to make the transition to a new paradigm. Secondly, the public has to embrace the new paradigm and discard old habits of thinking and acting. Thirdly, there is need for a technological revolution to support the first two requirements.

Pretoria, South Africa
Similarly, the South African government’s Green Economy Accord stresses the following enabling conditions. Firstly, innovation – the country can utilise its technological, research and manufacturing base to generate new processes and products. Secondly, responsibility – the government should create an enabling environment for businesses and citizens to do things differently. Thirdly, partnership – it is necessary to harness the combined efforts of all stakeholders to achieve the goals of the green economy. From the enabling conditions that have been highlighted, it is clear that for the green economy to be successful, these enabling conditions ought to be present, they are necessary. Additionally, every stakeholder should play their part. With proper coordination and collaboration, it is possible to create and strengthen synergistic relationships and partnerships which will enhance the achievement of the green economy objectives.

It is worthwhile to highlight some of the challenges that relate to the establishment of the enabling conditions. In relation to having strong political will and leadership, a serious challenge is that it is actually lacking or absent in most countries - developing and developed countries alike. For some countries, the political leadership change rapidly and there is no continuity in policies and programmes. In such cases it is difficult to sustain the green economy and its associated initiatives. In addition, the benefits of adopting a green economy might accrue in the long run although the costs are concentrated in the short run i.e. experienced immediately. This actually acts as a disincentive for politicians to embark on projects whose benefits will accrue long after they are out of power – they want instant tangible benefits to please their constituencies.

As the public embraces the green economy, there is need to have an enabling environment with relevant policies and technologies. An important aspect of the green economy is the need to create more jobs. At the same time, innovation has been emphasised. For instance, ten Brink et al. (2012) asserts that the economy has to be decoupled from resource use and its negative impacts through more radical innovation and changes in demand. It is noteworthy to highlight that while innovation is critical to have new processes and products, it should not be labour-displacing - otherwise the drive towards green economy will result in more unemployment and other negative effects. Labour-displacing technologies contribute to high unemployment with detrimental effects on the socio-economic situation.

Inclusion is key
In this context, Kaggwa et al. (2013) stress that green economy transition should be supported by appropriate and inclusive green technology. Appropriateness relates to acquisition and maintenance costs versus benefits to communities, skills needed to operate or benefit from the technology, and the ability of locals to localise the technology to suit their needs. Inclusive green technology enables more people to become part of the production systems rather than exclude them (ibid). This is very critical particularly in developing country context, where labour-displacing technologies are usually imported from developed countries on the guise of efficiency enhancement. Therefore, decisions and actions to import technology and products have to be informed by comprehensive and holistic cost-benefit analyses covering economic, social, and environmental aspects, so as to determine their appropriateness and inclusivity at the local level.

Drafting the WWF led Youth strategy for learning for Sustainability and Green Economy, Nairobi, Kenya
Public understanding and perceptions are crucial in the success of the green economy. For example, how consumers perceive the green technology and products will affect their adoption and demand (Mudombi, 2013). Related to this, O’Connor et al. (2002) found that people would want to reduce emissions if they understand the causes of climate change, if they perceive substantial risks from climate change, and if they think climate change mitigation policies will not cost them their jobs. Public perceptions need to be changed favourably if the green economy is to be adopted and embraced by the public. Thus, a green economy must emphasise the central role of education in general, and education for sustainable development and climate change in particular (Nhamo, 2013). While this article does not dwell much on the research on knowledge, attitude, behaviour and practice (KABP), it is notable that this can provide greater insight and help to inform how people’s understanding, perceptions and awareness influence how they respond to programs, events and risk. Incorporating KABP insights into the design of green economy initiatives and programmes will enhance their embracement and support by the public.

For the green economy to be sustainable, the benefits have to outweigh the costs, and this should be evident to the implementers as well as the beneficiaries. A transition to a green economy needs to take into account not only the opportunity of win-wins, but also the risks of losses for certain groups and trade-offs across sectors and over time (ten Brink et al. 2012).  The opportunities created by the green economy should be more than the opportunities that are lost as a result of adopting the green economy. By the same token, the costs or losses incurred by moving towards a greener economy should not be overall higher than pre-green economy era - otherwise there will be fewer incentives to adopt it. Nevertheless, it has to be emphasised that not all green economy benefits can be given a monetary value, this has implications on the evaluation process of costs and benefits. For example, one of the key outcomes of a green economy is equity - this outcome has many socio-economic benefits but such benefits cannot be easily quantified and compared using simple financial analysis per se. Hence, as highlighted before, there will be need for comprehensive and holistic cost-benefit analyses covering all aspects namely economic, social, and environmental.

One of the main objectives of the green economy is to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In this regard, it has been noted that reducing emissions especially in the energy sector will face significant barriers. These barriers arise due to the pressing need for a rapid transition, while at the same time, the transition must confront a cheap, plentiful, and socially embedded energy system based on fossil fuels (Arundel et al. 2011). With the adoption of the green economy, a larger share of energy will be provided by renewables – this will have negative feedback effects due to the decline in demand for fossil fuels which further lowers their prices. The relatively cheaper fossil fuels will in turn be more attractive to consumers compared to environmentally beneficial technologies (ibid). Ghanashyam (2010) corroborates that the current high cost of green technologies and low cost of brown technologies deter the deployment of green technologies. This calls for greater innovation to develop and avail cheaper cleaner renewable energy technologies.

The convergence between the Green Economy and Sustainable Development

The discussion on green economy cannot be separated from that of sustainable development. As such, it is important to discuss and explore how the green economy approach converges with the overall sustainable development agenda. The importance of the green economy concept in the context of sustainable development is evident in various national and international discussions. For example, the Heads of State and Government and high level representatives met in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (20-22 June 2012) and agreed on the ‘The Future We Want: Our CommonVision’. In this vision, they agreed that,
…we consider green economy in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication as one of the important tools available for achieving sustainable development and that it could provide options for policy making but should not be a rigid set of rules. We emphasize that it should contribute to eradicating poverty as well as sustained economic growth, enhancing social inclusion, improving human welfare and creating opportunities for employment and decent work for all, while maintaining the healthy functioning of the Earth’s ecosystems.

It should be highlighted that the adoption of green economy will help to contribute to sustainable development goals; nonetheless the two should not be equated. In fact, the green economy should only be a means to sustainable development and not an end (Perrot and Soumonni, 2015). The relationship between green growth and sustainable development can be depicted as shown in Figure 1. 

Figure 1: Conceptualising the linkage between green growth and sustainable development

Natural capital: The Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe
Sustainable development is attainable when the environmental, social, and economic dimensions converge. In the same way, the green economy as a pathway to sustainable development should ensure the convergence of the three dimensions. Economic growth should be achieved while ensuring that both the environmental and social dimensions are not constrained. In terms of the environmental dimension it should ensure appropriate responses to climate change, loss of natural capital, resource and water scarcity, and environmental degradation. Ultimately, the social dimension should not be left out in the process of seeking to ensure economic growth and environmental integrity. The FAO (2010) points out that a green economy is historically understood as an economic system that is compatible with the natural environment, today, the concept of green economy has evolved to consider also social issues. Accordingly, the green economy should enhance attainment of social objectives such as equity, food security, health, poverty reduction, employment creation, and youth and gender empowerment.

Tackling the ever growing unemployment is a very serious challenge facing policy makers and various stakeholders the world over. The green economy has been lauded as a potential source of employment creation. For instance, the South African government envisages the green economy as a unique opportunity to create jobs through a partnership to promote the green economy and processes to green the economy (The Economic Development Department, 2011). The FAO (2010) noted that green job creation is expected to offer decent jobs that offer adequate wages, safe working conditions, job security, reasonable career prospects and workers’ rights. As a result of adopting a green economy there will be an employment shift. Alternative green jobs will be created, some will be substituted, certain jobs will be eliminated without direct replacement, while many existing jobs will simply be redefined and profiles will be greened (ibid). The crucial issue is whether the green economy will result in greater employment versus greater unemployment. If it creates more unemployment through labour displacement, replacement and substitution, then it would have worked against the social objectives of sustainable development which emphasise equity within and across generations.

As the article has focused on the two aspects namely green economy and sustainable development, it is necessary to briefly stress the need for clarity in their use and what they entail. In reference to sustainable development, Connelly (2007) pointed out that, ‘as long as sustainable development is viewed as ‘everything and nothing’ it is weakened as a policy goal’. Similarly, if green economy is viewed as everything it will be weakened as development goal. Notable, their overuse and over emphasis as a panacea to almost all challenges will reduce their relevance and effectiveness, in the end magnifying their shortcomings. So it is necessary to be clear on what these concepts refer to, what they entail, and what they can achieve. Rather than just theoretical conceptualisation, of importance too, is their practical application. Strandenaes asserts that concepts often remain concepts in search of application.

Going forward

Shakes presenting at the Adaptation Futures Conference, University of Arizona, USA
The green economy cuts across various sectors and should be embedded in every sector; it is not a single way but a collection/combination of many ways of doing things. In responding to development challenges it is necessary to address causes rather than the symptoms, hence the need to address unsustainable consumption, production and life style patterns (Ghanashyam, 2010). The green economy approach emphasises the need to change ways of doing things. That is doing things (processes and ways) differently using different means (knowledge, skills and technology) and resources (clean and renewable rather than dirty and non-renewable) with the overall objective of achieving positive and sustainable socio-economic-environmental outcomes.

To that end, green economy planning has to be flexible and tailor-made to fit the conditions on the ground. The planning process has to be an iterative process, adapting to local conditions and responding to the needs of stakeholders nationally and locally (Low, 2011). Perrot and Soumonni (2015) emphasised that the mere “greening” of economic activities would not help much. What is required are adaptive socio-economic and bottom-up measures rather than top-down approaches only, as often advocated for by proponents of the green economy (ibid). It has to be interactive and responsive to the needs of all regions and contexts, ensuring that there are tangible, equitable and inclusive opportunities for job creation and natural capital conservation (Nhamo and Nhamo, 2014). Essential in shaping the green economy transition is political will to help come up with a shared vision (Nhamo, 2013) as well as co-leadership among member states in sharing experiences (Nhamo and Nhamo, 2014).

Though there are various contestations on what the green economy is and what it entails, one aspect that is clear is that the green economy is a development path that converges with or works towards sustainable development objectives. As various green economy initiatives are being adopted and implemented across the world, it remains to be seen how the triple economic, environmental, and social objectives of sustainable development are achieved. Of importance is that,
these green economy initiatives should result in enhanced convergence of the three dimensions rather than their divergence, or else the attainment or moving towards sustainable development will remain a pipe dream.

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